Konstantin Qeparoi

Per studjuesa historiane e gjuhetare me: shqip, anglisht, greqisht.

Pjese nga punimet e New York Center for Albanian Studies & Research

Permbajtja

- Dorianet ; Kola, B.Knox, Witte, M. Parry, Peter Jones, Homeri.

- Nga Lashtesia, Herodoti, Thukitidi, Plutarku etj. Fakte nga Mbreteria e Mikenes

- Istoria ton Elinon  

- The Script linear B, Bennett . . .

- Deshifred Linear B, Kober . . .

Hyrje : Dorianet ose doret jane banore te rinj (jo autoktone ) gjate bregdetit te Jonit, nga Himara, Peloponez,  Krete, bile gjurmet e tyre shkojne deri ne Siri, e Egjipt. Shkuan nga Malet e Ilirise ( nga veri-perndimi i Greqise se sotme ), detit me anije gra e femije dhe burrat bregut me bageti, duke ece paralel. Simbas vareve, dialektit, zakoneve, ornamenteve dhe ndertimeve, jane banoret me te hershem te maleve te kaonise, e me ne veri. Ishin me shtat te larte 1,8 m (Ilire ) dhe kudo ku shkuan gjeten popuj me shtat te shkurter 1.5m burrat e 1,35 m grate ( pellazget ). Me force ose me paqe, moren pushtetin atje ku qendruan dhe u bene zoter te vendit dhe te banoreve autoktone. I tille ishte Peloponezi, ishujt, Korinthi, Kreta etj.

Kulmin e organizimit dhe civilizimit e ariten ne Sparte dhe ne koloni ne Itali e Sicili. Te gjithe Mbreterit qe luftuan ne Troje, ishin Doriane. Gjuha e tyre, nje dialekt i vjeter ilir ose i shqipes me te lashte, nuk kuptohej nga banoret e Athines dhe shteteve te tjera ne brendesi te tokes. Homeri ishte dhe krijoi ne dialektin dorian pak te evoluar drejt helenishtes. Ata shemben, shkateruan cdo gje qe gjeten kudo dhe rifilluan nje jete te re. Prishen civilizimin Minonian ne Krete ( rreth 20 shekuj para eres se re ) dhe krijuan civilizimin Mikenas ne Peloponez gjate viteve 1400 – 1200 para eres se re. Gjuha e tyre u shkrojt ne pllaka argjili, me ane simbolesh, shenjash, ku secila prej tyre perfaqesonte nje rokje, e mjaftueshme per te dhene nje fjale ne gjuhen e tyre, por e pamundur te jape kuptim ne gjuhet helene, apo aziatike.

Ky shkrim u quajt Shkrimi Linear B. Me 1200 para krishtit, zhduket civilizimi Mikenas dhe bashke me te u nderpre shkrimi linear B. Dorianet nuk shkruan si atikasit ( Athinasit ) as histori, ligje, art, vecse u moren me ndertime skulpture, pikture, ornamente etj duke humbur gradualisht dialektin, duke kaluar perfundimisht ne shekujte e pare para Krishtit, ne gjuhen helene. Materiale te mjaftueshme gjeni ne Historine e Lashtesise se Unuversitetit te Kembrixhit dhe ne asnje universitet tjeter me nidkim Judeo-Kristian. Referenca mud t’i japim kujdo. Per kulture po jpim se c’fare thone dijetaret e botes per shkrimin linear B dhe pak per Dorianet.

Dorianët    

                                       Dorianët kishin prejardhje nga Iliria veriore…

                                                                                Aristidh Kola

1.         Sipas Aristidh Kolës 

Homeri na tregon se prijësi i fushatës së Trojës, Akili, i lutet Diellit Dodon apo Ilir dhe se vite më parë egzistonte një gjuhë e Zotave që u zhduk dhe e gjithë bota dhe fjalori i Akilit ruan një numur të madh rrënjësh ilire, të cilat i takojmë vetëm në gjuhën e sotme shqipe. Këtë zbulim e bëri i pari Dhimitër Kamarda, që thotë se shqipja ështe ajo gjuhë e Zotave për  të cilën bën fjalë Homeri në veprën e tij.

         Doret zbritën nga Iliria dhe më vonë, disa nga ata u ringjitën në Iliri dhe ngritën vendbanimet e Korfusit, Himares, Apollonisë  dhe shumë të tjera gjatë Mesdheut, -Orikum, Durrës, Lezhë, Sicili etj. Arvanitasit mund te jenë Dore të helenizuar. Bajroni thotë se në Pargë, Sul e Himarë, shoh një linjë të vetme (doriane?)   

                                    Himara, Suli’s rock and Parga’s shore

                                    Exists the remnant of a line

                                    Such as the Doric mother bore.

                                                                        Lord Byron

2.         Prof. Bernard Knox 

Director Of Harvard’s center for Hellenic Studi in Washington DC. [1]

   ” The language of Homer is of course a problem in itself. One things is certain: it is not a language that anyone ever spoke. It is an artificial, poetic language as the German scholar Witte puts it. The language of the Homeric poems is a creation of the epic verse. It was also a difficult language. For the Greek of the great age, that fifth century we inevitably  think of when we say ” the Greeks” the idiom of Homer was far from limpid ( they had to learn the meaning of long lists of obscure words at school.” ( flitet për fjalet shqip ).

And it was brimful of archaisms - of vocabulary, syntax and grammar - and incongruities : words and forms drawn from different dialects and different stages of the growth of the language. In fact, the language of Homer was one nobody, except epic bards, oracular priests or literary parodists would dream of using.

           This does not mean that Homer was a poet known only to scholars and schoolboys; on the contrary the Homeric epic were familiar as household words in the mouths of ordinary Greeks ( shqip - foles në  fakt ).

           They maintained their hold on the tongues and imaginations of the Greeks by their superb literary quality- the simplicity, speed and directness of the narrative technique, the brilliance and excitement of the action, the greatness and imposing humanity of the character- and by the fact that they presented the Greek people, in memorable form, with the image of their gods and the ethical, political and practical wisdom of their cultural tradition.

           Homer was thus at once contemporary in content and antique in form…

The language of Homer is the ” creation of epic verse in a strict sense too: it is created, adapted and shaped to fit the epic meter, the hexameter. This is a line, as its name indicates, of six metrical unites, which may, to put it crudely, be either dactyls ( a long plus two shorts ) or spondees ( two longs ) in the first four places but must be dactyl and spondee in that order in the last two ( rarely spondee and spondee, never spondee followed by dactyl ). The syllable are literally long and short; the meter is based on pronunciation time, not, as in our language, on stress…

         The metric itself demands a special vocabulary, for many combinations of long and short syllable that are common in the spoken language cannot be admitted to the line- any word with three consecutive short syllable, for example, any word with one short syllable between two longs. This difficulty was met by choosing freely among the many variations of pronunciation and prosody afforded by Greek dialectal differences; the epic language is a mixture of dialects.

          Under a light patina of Attic forms ( easily removable and clearly due to the preeminence of Athens as a literary center and then of the book trade ) there is an indissoluble mixture of two different dialects, Aeolic and Ionic. ( në  fakt ishte vetem shqip dmth doriane dialekt, që autori nuk e njihte shqipen. )

            But the attempts of the linguists to use this criterion for early ( Aeolic ) and late ( Ionic ) ran into the dilemma that Aeolic and Ionic forms sometimes appear inextricably tangled in the same line or half-line…..

This system obviously the product of invention, refinement and elimination of superfluities over generations, could only be the work of oral bards, and in fact similar phenomena, though infinitely les sophisticated are found on oral poetry, living and dead, in other language. . the process of modernization and produce the unhistorical amalgam of customs, object and linguistic forms that in our Homeric text.                          

The linear Script B found in clay tablets on the Mycenaean at Pylos, had some close correspondences with Homeric Greek, the historicity of Homer’s Iliad seemed to be something only a hard skeptic could deny

The German scholar Witte         

Puts it : ‘‘ The language of the Homeric poems is a creation of epic verse.” ( mendonin se kjo gjuhe nuk flitej, duke mos njohe shqipen )

By the criteria of linguistic analysis in the poem the weapons and arms of the heroes are bronze; this was the Bronze Age. ( in the Greek bronze – deri 1200 bc ).

 A historical analysis, then, fails to account for the amalgam, and the high hopes aroused by archaeology soon fadet too. There are not many objects in Homer that resemble anything discovered by the spade of the excavator. Two stand out. One is the cup of Nestor described in Book 11 (745-53), which has some resemblance to ( and some differences from ) a cop found at Mycenae by Schliemann.

           The other is a remarkable helmet, ” a helmet made of leather ” . . . .  outside the gleaming teeth of  white-tusked boar “ran round and round in rows stitched neat and tight” ( 10 305-8 ). Soch helmets, and artistic representations of them, have been found at Mycenaean sites, on Crete, at Mycenae, on Delos ( të gjitha vende te banuara nga doriane dhe jo helene. ), but never in late archaeological context.

          The architecture of the poem is magnificent, and it strongly suggests the hand of one composer, but it is true that there is a certain, roughness in  the details of the execution. The poem does contain, in a indissoluble amalgam, material that seems linguistically and historically to span many centuries….

The American scholar Milman Parry, 

From California was an assistant professor at Harvard when he was killed in a gun accident in Paris. Parry’s achievement was to prove that Homer was a master of and heir to a tradition of oral epic poetry that reached back over many generations, perhaps even centuries.

       He drew attention to the so-called ornamental epithets, those long high-sounding labels that accompany every appearance of a hero, a god, or even e familiar object. Agamemnon, for example, is ; lord of men” or ”wide-ruling,” Achilles is ”brilliant”, godlike”, or swift-footed”. Apollo is one who shoot from afar” the Achaeanas ( dorianet ) are strong-greaved, bright-eay Athena

      Homer offer, for each god, hero, or object, a chois of epithets, each one with a different metrical shape. In other words, the particular epithets chosen by the poet may have nothing to do with, … the choice depends on which epithet fits the meter.

            Parry pursued this insight of the German analytical scholar to its ogocal end and demonstrated that in fact there was an intricate system of metrical alternatives for the recurrong names of heroes, gods and objects.

       Parry demonstrated that the system was more extensive and highly organized than anyone had dreamed, and he also realized what it meant. It meant that the system had been developed by and for the use of oral poets who improvised. ….The system are found in oral poetry, living and dead, in other languages…… These are traditional patterns which the audience experts and the bard may vary but not radically change.

        The language of the poets becomes a repository of all the combinations that have proved useful. Smoll wonder that Aeolic and Ionic forms appear in the same line, that e Mycenaean boar-tusk helmet can turn up in a passage full of very late linguistic forms, that peoples sometimes give dowries and sometimes demand payment for their daughter’s hand, that cremation and inhumation are pracited side by side…..

       But the dedicatoin of epic poetry to the past and the counting usefulness of so much traditional phrasology will slow the process of modernization and produce the unhistorical amalgam of customs, objects and linguistic forms that we find in our Homeric text.

        The most likely date for the composition of the Iliad is the fifty years runing from 725 to 675 prkr. in this time mising the papirus in the Greece. Herodotus, writing in the fifth century b.c. In this time the Ionoan Greeks still used the word diphthera, ‘ skin’, when they meant  ” book.” ( dorianet e pare nuk i permend mbasi ata shkruanin në stilin linear B.)

        When in the 1950 the inscriptions on clay tablets found on the Mycenae site at Pylos as well as on the Minoan site of Cnossos in Crete, where not deciphred as Greek. It was a very archaic stage of the language that had som close corespondences with Homeric Greek, ( in fact Homerik dorian or albanian ),

The historicity of Homer’s Iliad semmed to be something only a hard-line skeptic could deny. There are Homeric names on the tablets, but though some of them are Achaean (Orestes, Adrastus), others are Trojan (Troy Illus).

         Homer’s Troy has been assignet a few traits that sound Oriental, or at any rate non-Greek ( sepse orgjina eshte nga emri i ………. ). The city has its hallowed landmarks : the Scaean and Dardanian Gates, the tombs of royal ancestor Illus in the plain, of old Aesyetes, and of Myrine;  The oak tree by the Sceane Gate (Iliade 6.283), the fig tree near the tomb of Illus, and the hot and cold springs.. And the city are those riches the Achaean dream…

” Iliad ”  is a word that means  ” a poem about Ilium. ( qyteti i Ililiumit =  qyteti i Yllit, Ylli ose Ilios = yll, dielli ). Son’ Dardanus is Troy ( nga ku mori emrin Troja ). Son of Troy is Ilium, ( keshtu quhej Troja deri në  kohen e Herodotit, 500 b.c.)

Petrarch had tried to learn Greek but gave up; Bocacio succeeded and also in 1360 had a chair of reek founded in Florence. But  before Petrarch, Dante, though he put Homer in his limbo of non-Christian poets, had never read him, and could not have read him even if he seen e text.

         In Iliad everything is Achaean (dorian - ku dialekti i tyre afron me shume me shqipen se sa me greqishten). Achaean world, camp, atac, army, lider …  Homer speaks of singing.

Dr. Peter V. Jones [2]   

At 1200 prkr. centre of civilization was Mycenae in Pylos, Peloponez and Cnossos in Crete. This civilization knew the writing. The script, now called Linear B, was preserved for as on clay tablets baked hard in the fire that destroyed the palaces, and subsequently excavated in their thousands. In 1952 it was discovered that Linear B was in fact a form of Greek (ato mund te lexohen vetem nepermjet gjuhes shqipe te lashte që kishin perdorur shkruesit doriane ose para dorianeve ).

        The Linear B script died with the collapse of Mycenae civilization in the 12 century and for 400 years Greece was illiterate, ( 1140 collapse Mycena). With he collapse of Mycenae and Minon, loss and writing, linear B. was the dark age. (With linear script nuk munt të shkruhej dialekti jonian i Atiqise, por vetem dialekti dorian-shqip që ishte nje rrokesh cdo folje dhe emer, ishte shume i thjeshte ).

Ne faqen 352 thuhet : Some modern critics agree, instancing ” un-Homeric language,” inconsistencies in the narrative.

Homer, The Odyssey, 24-538  is writing : 

Odysseus gathered him-self together and pounced on them like a swooping eagle ( shqiponje ). Odisea ishte eagle edhe Pirua, edhe Skenderbeu, dmth dorianet, iliret dhe shqiptaret të njejten gje ?

Nga Lashtësia 

Tek mjaft autorë të huaj, të thjeshtë dhe studjues, shikon një farë hezitimi për vazhdushmërinë iliro–shqiptare. Miqtë tanë besojnë se ne jemi ilirët, armiqtë tanë, që e kanë edhe penën më të fortë, thonë se ne  nuk jemi ilirët, kurse ka neutralë që  hallakaten ashtu si vetë studjuesit tanë, ose tekstet tona shkollore, që  janë jo shumë të stabilizuara.

         Kush lexon Aristidh Kolën[3] e kupton se, sa më thellë të futesh në  lashtësi, aqë më të qarta bëhen rrënjët tona. Po për  këtë duhet të zotërosh gjuhën helene si burim fillestar, gjuhën angleze për  materiale anësore, direkte ose plotësuese, të njohësh shkrimin linear B, dhe, mundësisht, të bësh krahasime në gjuhët e tjera paralele.

          Në Historinë e Lashtësisë së Universitetit të Kembrixhit [4] gjen shumë elementë, shkëndija shqiptare, kudo nëpër botën e atëherëshme. Duke u nisur nga gjuha jonë e lashtë, pothuajse e tëra me fjalë një rokëshe, sheh se shkrimi linear B (dmth jo shkrimi A qe është përdorur në  Perandorinë Mioniane ), u perdor në  Knosos, në  Mykena, dhe diku-diku në brigjet e Mesdheut, Siri, Palestinë e Egjipt, Babiloni e Japoni.

         Çdo fjalë që deshifrohet sot nuk ka kuptim në asnjë gjuhë të botës, veçse del e përafërt me tonën, që duke hequr evolimet e ndodhura për  mbi 30000 vjet, gjë që e bëjnë dhe ata që bëjnë e besojnë, janë vetëm albanologët (gjuhëtarët e jo diletantët në fushën e gjuhësisë).

Duke lexuar Aristidh Kolën tek Gjuha e Perëndive, tek Orgjina e Helenëve, shikon se me kot Prof. J. Elena Harisoni[5] kërkon të dijë kuptimin e fjalorit të kulteve më të hereshme të njerëzimit. Në  tre librat, Themi, Prolegomena, Epilegomena, ajo i afrohet kuptimit të fjalëve dhe i len ashtu mqs nuk din shqip.

         Civilizimi i parë i shoqërisë njerëzore shkroi me herioglife, shkrimi linear A, që  nuk ka të bëjë asgjë me gjuhën tonë. Shkrimi tjetër 1400-1200 vjet pr.kr. (para krishtit) u quajt shkrimi linear B, që  u shkruajt në  pllaka argjili të papjekura. Ky është shkrimi dialekt i shqipes se vjeter, që  u ruajt deri më sot në sajë të zjarrit që zhduku gjithçka, vetëm pllakat e argjlit i bëri qeramike të pavdekshëm.

         Me alfabetin e sotëm helen shkrojti i pari autor me emrin ‘Ocellus’ (O Qiell),[6] nga i cili morën Hesiodi dhe Platoni më vonë. Hesiodi 800-730 pr.kr., shkroi për   fenë, mitologjinë, kulturën, filozofinë, por ne na interesojnë vetëm termat fetare qi ai përdor në  librin Theogonia. Perënditë e tij ishin Qielli, Toka, Deti. Autorin Ocellus e përcakton si Perëndinë Qielli (përdor po këtë emër).

Hesiodi [7] ishte i pari që renditi të nëntë Muzat dhe u dha emrin që vetë populli u kishte ngjitur që në lindjen e besimit fillestar të njeriut të parë primitiv. Këto emra femrash nuk kanë kuptim në greqishten e vjetër e të re, ato janë me orgjinë shqipe. Merrni lexoni librin e Julianes “Ndikimi i Perëndive në Perëndimin e Perëndimit”[8] dhe do të gjeni shpjegim bindës dhe të kënaqshëm. Hesiodi lindi në Aetoli (vendi i Shqipes, aeto=shqiponjë, krahine në Epir) dhe emigroi në  Azinë e Vogël.

Homeri 775-725 pr.kr.[9] flet dialektin dorik, se ai si gjithë udhëheqësit e grupimeve të ndryshme të mbretërive e klaneve që luftuan për të marrë ose Trojen ose Elenën, ishin dorianë. Për fjalorin e Homerit lexoni Dh. Kamardën e më pas Kolën. Do të bindeni se dialekti dorian në kohën e luftës ishte aq pak i larguar nga shqipja e atehershme, sa që në të dy anët e Trojes flitej afërsisht e njëjta gjuhë.

       Në kohën e Homerit ky dialekt u largua edhe më shumë nga orgjina dhe njëmijë vjet më vonë humbet ose shkrihet me gjuhën e jonianëve në Atiki, greqishten. Dialekti dorian, varjant i ndarë nga ilirishtia, flitej në krejt brigjet e gadishullit.

Epika e Homerit jep botën në shekullin 13 prkr.. Tek Homeri përmendet emri shqip Ylli, emër i evluar në Illus, Illium. Ilus është djali i Dardanit,[10]  emrin e të cilit e ka qyteti Illus  deri në  shekullin e IV prkr. Troje u quajt më vonë nga emri i djalit tjetër të Dardanit, Tros,[11] dhe gjejmë se Ilus është edhe djali i Mermerit (shiko referencën 8).

Yll = illus = illium,   shq.

Diell = ilios = ilium,  gr.

“Dorianët janë populli i Odisesë. Në  Knosos kishte tre fise doriane.”[12]  Në  Pylos ata ishin rreth viteve 1400 prkr.. Si në  Kretë, Knosos dhe në  Peloponez-Mykena dorianët përdorën shkrimin linear B. Gjuha e tyre sipas shkrimit ishte me fjalë një rrokëshe, ku çdo rrokje kishte kuptim të plotë. Gjuhë një rrokje kishin ilirët atëherë dhe ne sot.

         Kur gjuha evoloi dhe degë ose bija të saj dollën në vehte, ato ishin shumë rrokeshe. Gjuha helene, si e vjetra dhe e reja, janë shumë rrokëshe. Kur ishte një rrokëshe, gjuhë e njeriut shumë primitv, ajo nuk quhej helene, por dialekt e ilirishtes (shqipes arkaike).

Gjuha helene nuk mund të shprehet me shkrimin linear B, se krahas zhvillimit, civilizimit, edhe gjuha nuk ngeli një rrokëshe, ashtu si ngeli e jona dhe vetë ne edhe për mijëra vjet të tjera primitive. Nga shkrimi linear B deri në fillimin e përdorimit të alfabetit fenikas, ju deshën mbi 600 vjet në  errësirë  banorëve të atëhershëm.

       Është për  t’u theksuar se ilirët e ngelur këtu ku jemi ne sot e më lart, më në  veri, nuk e përdorën shkrimin linerar B, ose e përdorën dhe nuk kemi gjetur gjurmë, qaramidhe apo qeramike të pjekur me shkrim. Me alfabetin e ri u shkrua vetëm dialekti i Atikisë, duke bërë në këtë mënyrë që dialekti dorian, varianti i Homerit, shumë i ngjashëm me dialektin tonë të vjetër, të humbasë atje e të ruhet në malet tona.

Ocellus, Hesiodi, Homeri, shkruan me stilin dorik. Por historianët, filozofët, njerëzit e artit e të letrave, shkruan në dialektin jo dorian por ne dialektin e Atikise qe evoloi, e që flitet sot ne gjien helene.

        Dorianët u morën me vepra arti, pikture, skulpture, arqitekture, ndërtime. Epitektus shkroi vetëm në dialektin dorian dhe u përkthye në dialektin tjetër për  ta marrë vesh helenët. Dorianët lanë stilin e tyre në varre, që e gjejmë vetëm në territorin shqiptar sot, lanë stilin dhe mënyrën e ndërtimit të shtëpive, shkallëve, kangjellave, që  janë gjetur të tilla edhe tek ne. (Shiko për detaje Profesorët Frano Prendi e N. Hamondi).

       Dorianët nuk ndërtuan qytete shtet në  Peloponez, Himarë, Orikum, Apolloni, Durrës, Lezhë etj, po ngelën në organizimin e shtetit tribu. Meqenëse Homeri foli dhe shkroi, ose i thuri poemat e tij në  dialektin dorian, Petrarka, megjithëse mësoi gjuhën greke, nuk arriti të lexonte Homerin. Bokacio më 1360 po ashtu.

Dantia e vuri në  shportën e poetëve jo kristiane dhe kurrë nuk mundi ta lexonte. Robert Fogles shkruan: “Gjuha e Homerit nuk ishte një gjuhë e folur nga të gjithë. Ishte gjuhë artificiale poetike.”[13] Mendohej keshtu sepse nuk njihej shqipia, ose si kudo e kurdohere fiton hilia e me te fortit ). Nuk i shkonte ndër mend se kjo “gjuhë artificiale” sipas tij, flitej më në veri, nga epiriotë e ilirë.

Dijetari gjerman Witte shkruan: “Gjuha e poemës së Homerit ishte version i krijuar, ishte gjuhë e vështirë, për  grekët në  periudhën e lavdishme në  shek. V prkr.”[14]  Dr. Peter konsiston se: “Dialekti i Homerit nuk është dialekti jonian, por dialekt dorian.”[15] Tek Delfi në Parnaso, në vendin e shenjtë nga ku Orakulli merrte përgjigjet e pyetjeve të bëra nga klientët, ishte një femër me titullin Pyth-ia, (Homeri, Iliada, 8-80 dhe 11-581).

        Dodona në  qendrën e Epirit, ishte tempulli i orakullit të Zeusit. Këtu Zeusi gjeti qendrën e botës, vendi ku u takuan dy lajmësit e tij, dy shqiponjat. Shiponjë e quajtën Pirron epiriotët, shqiponja i quajti ai njerëzit e tij dhe shqiponja me dy kokë dmth dy shqiponjat u bënë simbol i Epirit, që  i kemi edhe sot. Por për helenët as shqiponja, as simboli i saj nuk iu përmend ndonjëherë dhe nuk e bënë simbol të tyre. Ata, në vend të shqiponjës zgjodhën Bufin, më të zgjuarin shpend, që edhe kur fle, një sy e mban hapur për të përgjuar, të cilin e bënë simbolin e Perëndeshës Athina.

      Në këtë mënyrë Qielli, pastaj Zeusi në  Dodone, me shqiponjën e tij, epirotet, banorët përreth Dodones, e deri më sot ne, mbajtësit e shqiponjës jemi në një linjë të pandërprerë, shqiponja-ilire. Armiqtë tanë gjatë këtyre 4 mijë vjetëve na vunë emra të ndryshëm që është e mira, vetë ne, të mos i përmendim asnjëherë kudo brenda dhe jashtë Shqipërisë. Albanë, arbër, arnaute, arbereshe, arvanite, kosovare, të gjitha janë sajime, dmth që  paraqesin grupime ose fise që bëhen të njohur shumë shekuj më pas. Devijime, ngatërresa, në emrat tanë ka pasë që kur erdhën serbët në Ballkan e më pas.

         Ashtu si epiriotët e quajnë Pirron shqiponjë, se lëshohej si shqiponjë, sipas Plutarkut tek libri per Pasardhësit e Aleksandrit të Madh, po ashtu e quan edhe Homeri, Odisenë rreth një mijë vjet më parë. Odisea lëshohej si “Swooping eagle” [16] dmth si shqiponjë.

         Gjitoni ynë quhet Helada në tokë të tij dhe populli atje, nuk e di dhe nuk ju intereson se si quhen nga të tjerët. Në Amerikë nuk ka asnjë organizatë shoqate, fondacion, institucion, kompani etj që  të ketë emrin grek, ky emër është i ndyrë për ata. Kurse ne mburremi duke thënë dhe duke vënë kudo emrat fallco albani, Kosove, etj dhe duke na ardhë turp të themi dhe të shkruajmë vetëm Shqipëri, Dardani ose ilirë.

Herodoti, 480-424 prkr.  

Ishte i pari, më i madhi, historian i lashtësisë. Askush nuk dyshon në  thëniet e tij. Në vendet që ai është i heshtur, nuk do të thotë se s’ka ngjarë apo s’ka egzistuar kjo ose ajo gjë.

        Herodoti flet për dorianët e ikur nga Peloponezi (që  kishin ardhë nga Veriu) drejt jugut dhe qëndruan në  Pith-ia dhe Bith-ia, dy vende të emëruar nga ata në Azinë e Vogël.[17]  Pellazgët ishin gjitonë me ata që tani quhen Dorianë.[18]  E dimë sipas Historisë së Lashtësisë së Kembrixhit që ilirët ishin bashkëkohës me pellazgët dhe kishin dallim shumë të madh midis tyre, atë dallim që kishin spanjollët koloniste me indigjenët meksikane, në gjatësi ose lartësinë e trupit. Dorianët-ilirë, të zbritur nga malet e Shqipërisë, ishin rreth 1.8 m, kurse pellazgët ishin 1,5 metra të gjatë.[19]

Në Peloponez kishte 12 fise doriane,[20]  kurse vendasit u ndoqën prej tyre.[21] Ishujt deri në Rodos u kapën nga dorianët, dhe ishte ekspedita e parë që  dorianët Lacedonas, arcadias, etj morën Brigjet e Azise. [22]  Këtu tributë doriane nderuan emrin e tyre. [23]  Për dorianët flet Hoerodoti në  faqet 411, 412, 442, 443, 504, 513, 516, por nuk thotë gjë për gjuhën e tyre. Ritet fetare i bënin fshehtas dhe i mbanin sekret.[24]  Në  faqen 507 thotë se  “të gjitha këto fise janë greke, por unë do flas vetëm për  Lacedonet,”  dmth fisin e Lakonisë, dorianët që  më vonë nga emri i vendit u quajtën Spartanë.

        Në Thermopile ishin të gjithë luftëtarët doriane, [25] në  lashtësi fisi Kari-an erdhi në tokë nga ishulli, të cilët në kohën e Minos quheshin Lelege. Banorët e Spilesë edhe sot nga qeparotësit quhen Lege.[26]

Karianët kishin territor të madh të dhënë nga Mbreti Mino, kishin anije të tyre dhe ishin të suksesshëm në luftë, ishin më të dëgjuarit, ishin Pucarej  gr. (= shumë të zotë, kurse në  shqip = karuca quhen më të dobëtit). Megjithëse ishin fise të ndryshme doriane, kariane, etj në  tempull merreshin vesh se flisnin të njëjtën gjuhë.[27]

           Ndonse flitet vazhdimisht se lëvizjet kanë qenë nga veriu drejt jugut, Herodoti thotë se Kaonet vijnë nga Kreta. Më vonë gjuha e karianëve dhe e dorianëve u shkri në një dialekt. Zakonet e kaoneve kishin orgjinë tjetër. Këta mblidheshin tok burra, gra, rinia, sipas moshave dhe hanin, pinin, këndonin. Kaonet qëndronin të gjithë vazhdimisht të armatosur. Trashëgonin emrin e nënës dhe jo të babait (f. 75), si hebrejtë.

         Në librin e Herodotit flitet për portin e Panormës (f. 69). Emri i Dodones vjen nga gjuha e barbarëve. (f. 116), dmth e kaoneve që nuk flasin greqisht, mqs Herodoti quante barbare të gjitha fiset që nuk flisnin helenishten. Koloninë e Himarës dhe Panormës e krijoi një tribu doriane Zanklet.[28] Në  Iliri çdo burrë bënte një shenjë në trup që ishte mollë, trëndafil, lily, ose shqiponjë, për t’i dalluar nga të tjerët .

Thukitidi 460-379 prkr.

            20 vjet pas rënies së Trojes, dorianët u bënë zotër të Peloponezit.[29] Dorianët u përqendruan në Sparte dhe formuan disa shtete të ndryshme. (f.107). Sparta ishte një qytet Spartan.

        Dorianët krijuan së pari qytetin e Korinthit për veten e tyre (f. 290). Ata luftuan me Jonianët (athinasit) (f. 352). Gati të gjitha kolonitë në  Sicili janë me dorianë të ikur nga Peloponezi (f. 458), si dhe Sirakuza (f- 460). Jonianët, athinasit dhe helenë të tjerë kanë qenë vazhdimisht në armiqësi me dorianët e ardhur nga veriu (Shqipëria) dhe zaptuan Peloponezin e krejt brigjet e Mesdheut (f. 461).

Popullsia e Rodos dhe e Cythera janë dorianë, që të dyja koloni spartane (f. 514). Banorët e Korfusit ishin kolonë korinthas jo direkt doriane, por doriane të evoluar ( f. 514 ).  Në çdo luftë jonianët nuk dëshëronin të ndesheshin me dorianët se nuk fitonin dot ( f. 552 ). Dorianët janë racë e ilirëve luftëtarë ( f. 340 ). Thesprotët janë himariotë ( f. 53 ). Nga lumi Thyamis e lart janë himariotët ( f. 63 ).

           Nga Kaonia erdhën 27 anije, në  luftën e Peloponezot ( f. 559 ). Krykomandanti i athinasve, gjeneral Alqivjadhi filloi luftën me Fasaliasit dhe Kaonët. Kaonët një tribu native po marshonin drejt Argos. Në koloninë e Himarës flitej një dialekt mikst, i përzier Calcidiane e Doriane ( f. 412 ). Në Himarë popullsia helene ishte doriane. Himara ishte e pavarur ( f.  49 ). Durrësi ishte koloni e themeluar nga Faius, djali i Eratoclides, një Korinthian, nga familje e Herakliut. Kolonët ishin dorianë ( f. 49 ).

Apollonia ishte një koloni Korinthase dhe e Korfusit e përbërë nga dorianë ( f. 50 ). Kaonët ishin tribu që  qeveriseshin pa mbret. Po kështu edhe Thesprotet nuk qeverisej nga mbret, gjë që  i dallonte nga helenët ku qeveriseshin kudo nga një mbret ( f. 174-177 ),  2-80.

Ksenofoni  431-354 pr.kr.[30]

Peloponezi u pushtua me 1800 pr.kr. nga dorianët e ardhur nga veriu (f. 68). Veshjen e nuseve spartanët e kishin si në  Argos e Kaoni (f. 97).Etj…

Polybius  200-120 pr.kr.[31]

Finiqi ishte një qytet në Kaoni, Epir.

Plutarku  200-118 bc

Krahina e Lakonisë mori formën e një shteti në shekullin e 8 prkr.. Qendra ishte Sparta dhe banorët e saj ishin dorianë.[32]  Dorianët erdhën si kolonë në  Peloponez.[33] Spartanët me format e tyre karakteristike dorike, kishin identitetin e tyre.[34] Senatori Romak Appius i quan ushtarët e Pirros jo grekë, por fshtarë kaone e mollosë.[35]

Likurgu, ligjbërësi i Spartës, ndërtoi një tempull për Perëndeshën Minerva në stilin dorik dhe ja vuri emrin Op ti le ti.[36] Plutarku shpjegon se emrat Dodona, Pirro, Ylli janë emra në gjuhën e vendit atje dhe jo helene. …Në qytetin Dorian të Lakonisë, gratë si rast i veçantë në botë komandojnë burrat e tyre[37]

Fakte nga Mbretëria e Mykenës

Në Mykenë të Peloponezit rreth 3000 vjet më parë ka pasur një civilizim ku shoqëria drejtohej nga Mbret dhe egzistonin të gjitha institucionet e shtetit. Flitej një gjuhë e cila edhe shkruhej. Me rënien e tërmetit dhe zjarrit qyteti dhe pallati Mbretëror u zhdukën krejtësisht. Civilizimi humbi, edhe gjuha me gjithë shkrimin nuk vazhduan më pas.

Shekullin e kaluar janë gjetur pllakat prej argjili të pjekura ku ka shënime të ndryshme të shkrojtura me eliogrife, atë që sot e quajnë shkrimi linear B. Me këtë shkrim janë mbajtur jo histori e ngjarje, por llogari tregëtare, shkëmbime dhe gjëra të thjeshta. Nuk janë në gjuhën greke sepse asnjë fjalë nuk merr kuptim në atë gjuhë, as në gjuhë të tjera.

        Çdo heliogrif është një rrokje që përfaqëson një fjalë me kuptim të plotë. Pra është gjuhë e folur me fjalë vetëm një rrokëshe. Dhe kjo gjuhë është ilirishtia ose shqipja e vjetër, sepse e sotmia ka evoluar dhe është shtuar edhe me fjalë shumë rrokëshe. Gati të gjitha pllakat mund telexohen vetëm nga njespecialist shqip-folës i dialektit para Buzukut ose para De Radës.

        Në vitet e mbretërisë së Mykenës ose në  periudhën e Bronxit, kanë ndodhur edhe dyndjet e ilirëve nga veriu drejt jugut, të ashtuquajturve dorianë ose dorët. Dorianët kanë pasur dialekt në vehte në Greqi, dialektin e Homerit që  është më afër shqipes së lashtë së greqishtes arkaike.

        Ndërtimet doriane në varreza dhe vend-mbrojtje kanë stil të veçantë, nga të gjitha ndërtimet e bashkëkohësve të tyre. Varre dhe furra doriane, skelete të ngjashme në to ose afër tyre janë gjetur në  Kretë-Knosos, në  Peloponez-Mykene, në  Kukës, në  Vlorë-Vajze etj. Më 2006 një grup arkeologësh amerikanë,[38] gjetën në  Luginën e Shoshaj, në  Alpe të Veriut të Shqipërisë një vend-strehim të fshehtë të kohës së Bronxit, ose më mirë të kohës së mbretërisë Mykenase. Muret me gurë qiklopikë gjigante datonin 3000 vjet më parë ose më mirë 800 – 1000 vjet bc. 

        Në 2000 analiza të bërë me marrjen e mostrave nga vrimat që  ju bënë gurëve u arrit në  përfundim se koha, stili, përpunimi, gdhendjet, mënyra e vendosjes janë të stilit dorian. Në  kohën që  dihet se dorianët zbritën nga veriu, atëhere del se nuk u kthyen po ata për të bërë ndërtime, por ishte pjesa tjetër që  ngeli, e cila dinte ose bënte të njëjtën gjë që  bënin në  Spartë e kudo.

         Dorianët, ashtu si malësorët e alpeve shqiptare, ishin tepër primitivë, të egër dhe kudo ku shkuan prishën civilizime dhe ndërtuan gjithçka të reja, natyrisht duke frenuar civilizimin.

Istoria ton Elinon [39]

Prof. Joanis e fillon tekstin e Histories Greke per studentet e universitetit, ne kapitullin e tij, me teme : “Shkrimi Mikenas,”  dhe : “Shkrimi ne Token Greke “ ( I Grafi ston Elliniko Horo ). Studimi mbeshtetet kryesisht ne punimet e M. Ventris, Chadwick, etj. Fjala eshte per shkrimet ne disqet prej argjili, te quajtura shkrimi linear B. Ky shkrim ndryshon nga shkrimi linear A, ne civiliziminme te hershem Mionian Krete. Tabelat jane gjetur, me mijera cope, ne Cnosos-Krete, Pilos-Peloponez dhe fare pak ne vende te tjera, ne token greke qe te gjitha.

Meqenese jane gjetur ne token greke, te gjithe shkenctaret jane munduar qe kuptimin e shkrimit, mbas deshifrimit, ta kerkojne ne kete gjuhe. Pothuajse te gjithe jane te mendimit se kjo eshte nje gjuhe jo greke. Konstrukti i fjaleve greke, me shume bashketingllore, ishte i pa mundur te shkruhej me keto simbole, qe secila prej tyre jep nje rokje,

Rrokjet jane klasike; nje zanore e shoqeruar vetem nga nje bashketigllore, karakteristike kjo vetem e gjuhes shqipe, e pa njohur nga studjuesit angleze dhe amerikane qe jane marre me deshifrimet ne shekullin XX.

Profesori amerikan, Bennetti mundi te deshifronte disa prej tyre duke ju dhene kuptim ne gjuhen greke. Ato ishin emra vendi ose njeriu. Ai gjeti se simbolet qe japin rokjet  a-re-ka-sa-da-ra  japi emrin A le ksa ndra, etj te ketij modeli. Per kete Profesorit ju dha nga qeveria greke medaljet dhe titujt me te larte qe ka mare nje i huaj ndonjhere. Por pothuajse gjithe sudjuesit e tjere jane jo plotesisht dakord, sepse emer kaqe te gjate, kur shkrimi perfaqeson nje gjuhe me fjale nje rokeshe, nuk ka pase ne ate periudhe, 1400 vjet para Krishtit.

Prof. Joanis specialist ne filologji per kohen e Mikenes, jep ose e ben fakt te kryer perse shkrimi linear B  perfaqeson gjuhen helene.  Nje gjuhetar shqiptar qe zoteron anglishten dhe greken do ta kuptoje se si jane ngjitur artificialisht, pa shume baza disa gjera.

Shkrimi linear nuk eshte i nderprere dhe jep rreth 20 simbole ose shenja ne nje vije, rrjesht. Profesori merr si ne rastin e Aleksandres, 6 shenja bashke per te nxjer ndonje kuptimin ne gjuhen greke. Studjuesit angleze dhe amerikane kane mare dialektet e Anatolise ( Azi ), Egjiptit, etj te lindjes, por pa rezultat, Kane mare gjuhen Meksikane, Kineze dhe Japoneze, qe ka nje fare perberje me rokje te thjeshta, zanore + bashketingllore. Por nderprerjen e rrjeshtit ose te fjales po ta besh pas cdo simboli, ose me sa me pak simbole ose rokje, do te ritet shume here mundesia per te gjetur fjale shqipe.

Shkrimi linear B nuk jep art, letersi, poetri, as shprehje, Ai jep liste te kerkuar nga Mbreti me emra njerezish, liste mallrash per tregeti, liste paisjesh per lufte, etj, por jo shprehje.

Ne historine e Greqise per shkrimin linear B, jepet kjo metodologji, per te vertetuar se ai me qene se eshte ne token greke, eshte shkrim i fjaleve greke :

Disqet ose tabelat; menyra e shkrimit B; rregullat e shkrimit Mikenas; vendi ku u shkruan tabelat e argjilit; germat; krahasimi i germave (simboleve) me ato te shkrimit Qipriot; Ne shkrimet c’fare shkruhet; koha e shkrimeve ne copat e tabelave, deri kur vazhdoi shkrimi B; permbajtja e shkrimeve; Gjuha ne keto shenime; leksikologjia dhe kuptimi i shenimeve; foljet ne simbole; Fjale mikenase qe gjenden tek Homeri; fjale mikenase ne gjuhen e sotme; morfologjia dhe fonetika qe vertetohen ne gjuhen moderne greke; pjese nga shkrimet qe i gjejme ne epoken para-Homerit; cfare thone shkenctaret e huaj; kultura ne civilizimin Mikenas; shkrime, poezi te viteve Mikenase;

Faktet jane, dokumenta ka, qe te nxiret : Se ne shkrimin linear B eshte shkruar gjuha e lashte ilire, shqipia e vjeter ose dialekti dorian i kohes para Homerit qe eshte me afer me dialektin dorian se me dialektin e Athinasve. Per kete duhen tema doktorate nga studjues qe te zoterijne te pakten te tre gjuhet, duhet angazhimi i shtetit, Universitetit, etj, gje qe duket perspektive e larget. Duhet patur parasysh se lidhja Judeo-Kristiano cdo gje e don me orgjine Orienti dhe deri me sot askush nuk ka guzuar ti kundershtoje, se ose do ta quajne te mare ose do ta zhdukin.

I glosa ton qimenon tis Gramiqis grafi B ine eleniki grafa, oti, pote akrivos qe pu I Mikeni Elines, prosarmozontas tus, dimiurgisan ti Gramiqi grafi B den to gnorizume.

I grfi B ine katalili ja gloses ton opion I leksis apotelunte apo ales silaves ( san Iaponiki Hi ro shi ma, Na ga sa ki ;  Se no ri ta in Mexiko ; ke dhen lene san albaniki glosa pu ine ola ta leksi me mia silaves, poli i dorian koloni : Le zha,  Du re si,  A po lo ni a,  O ri ku mi,  Pa la sa,  Hi ma ra,  Fi ni qi,  Su li,  Ilir poli – Puka, Bu re li, Ku ke si, I albaniqi leksi ; va ji,  mi se ri,  fa su le,  o ri zi,  ka li,  de le,  go ma ri,  lo pa,  pu la,  ve za,  bu ka, e mallera te tjera tregetia qe jane shenuar me shkrimin linear B: Kon/ni ).

Pola iseogramata ine agnosto it simenun, ala omos ine safi. . . , To pithanotero lipon, ine ot I gramiqi grafi B sinexise na hrisimopiite ston eliniko horo ( p.x apo emboros we meta tin katarefsi tu mikiniaiku kosmo eos tin emfanisitis Finiqis fonitiqis grafis.

The Script Linear B

( I dialektit Ilir ose prihelen, jo grek)

In the late 19th Century, it was known that there were some ancient ruins to the south of the city of Iraklion in Crete. It was assumed that they were Ancient Greek, since Greece is littered with such ruins. Arthur Evans, the director of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, went out to Crete and started excavating in 1900. What he found took the world by storm: the ruins were much older than had been thought, dating from the period 2000 - 1350 BC, and belonged to a hitherto-unknown civilisation. Evans recalled the Ancient Greek legends of a King Minos who lived in a palace called Knossos on Crete. Minos’s palace was protected by a labyrinth and a bull-headed monster, the Minotaur. Evans invented the name ‘Minoan’ for the newly-discovered civilisation.

The ruins turned out to be a vast building with more than 1,500 rooms. Evans was convinced that this was indeed Knossos, the palace of Minos, and that the vast number of rooms had given rise to the legend of the labyrinth. Frescoes in the palace showed that the people worshipped bulls; Evans identified this as the source of the legend of the Minotaur.

Among the ruins, Evans found more than four thousand clay tablets1 covered in strange symbols. These were obviously writing, but of a sort never seen before. Some of them bore pictures similar to Egyptian hieroglyphs; Evans named these ‘Hieroglyphic Script’. Most of them, however, consisted of symbols made of lines, forming squares, triangles, crosses and so on. Evans gave this script the unimaginative title of ‘Linear’.

As excavations progressed, it became evident that there were two types of Linear. The earlier tablets, dating from 1650 - 1450 BC, used symbols which appeared to be adapted from the hieroglyphic script. The later tablets, dating from 1450 BC onward, used a slightly different set of linear symbols. Evans named the two scripts ‘Linear A’ and ‘Linear B’.

You can see a simple example of the Linear B symbols here2. Evans tried for many years to decipher the two linear scripts, as well as the hieroglyphic script, but failed. He assumed that the tablets were written in the Minoan language, and that it was unrelated to Ancient Greek, since he thought that the Minoan civilisation had already died out when the Greek-speaking people first arrived in what is now Greece.

First Steps at Decipherment

Evans did make some progress in analysis of the scripts. It was he who divided the inscriptions into Linear A and Linear B. He counted the number of different symbols - there were about 120 in each writing system. This made it likely that the script was a syllabic script, where each symbol represents one syllable. Alphabets (such as our own), where each letter represents one consonant or vowel, tend to need less than 40 symbols, while logographic systems (such as Chinese) with a symbol for each word need far more, usually thousands or tens of thousands. Syllabic scripts (such as the Japanese kana system) fall in between.

Syllabic scripts are generally used for languages where there is an alternation between consonants and vowels, such as in the words senorita and Mexico. These can be broken down into syllables, each syllable consisting of a consonant followed by a vowel: se-no-ri-ta and Me-xi-co. There is a different symbol in the script for each possible syllable: sa, se, si, so, su, na, ne, ni, no, nu, etc. Syllabic systems are not so useful for languages like English where there are a lot of consonant clusters, such as the ’str’ at the start of ’stripy’ and where words end in consonants without a vowel after them.

Further analysis of Linear B showed that there appeared to be a mixture of both pictures and syllabic symbols. Some symbols stood on their own, separated from the rest, and were recognisable as pictures: a horse, a man, a jar. Other symbols were simpler and were not of anything recognisable. These were grouped together with other similar symbols. It was assumed that these were the syllables of words, although Evans felt that some of them might serve other purposes.

Evans correctly guessed that the small vertical line which occurred regularly throughout the inscriptions marked the end of a word. Since some words occurred at the ends of lines and were continued on the next line, it was clear that the script was written from left to right. He also managed to figure out the system of numerals, with symbols for 1, 10, 100 and 1,000 repeated as often as necessary to make numbers. Many of the tablets were obviously lists of items, with each line containing a word, a picture and a number. At the bottom was a word presumably meaning ‘total’, and the actual total. They appeared to be stock lists.

Evans’s other contribution to the decipherment was to notice that there were two particular symbols, one looking like a box and the other like a backwards ‘5′, that were often used to end words that were otherwise identical. He took this as an indication that the language used the system of changing the ending of a word to denote the word’s function that is common in most European languages. This is known as ‘inflection’.

Evans noticed a slight correspondence between some of the Linear symbols and the symbols of the Cypriot writing system (from the island of Cyprus), which was used a thousand years later and which had been deciphered, but he dismissed them as coincidence: the Cypriot alphabet was used for writing Greek, and he believed that Linear A and Linear B could not possibly be related to Greek, as they were far too old.

Linear B Found Outside Crete

In 1939, an archaeologist by the name of Carl Blegen found about 600 tablets written in Linear B in the ancient palace of Pylos. This was on the Greek mainland. Pylos was built by a different civilisation, the Mycenaeans, who flourished in Mainland Greece from about 2000 BC to about 1200 BC. They were quite a different culture to the Minoans, with different art, burial customs, gods and rituals.

This was a mystery, because if Linear B was Minoan, why was it being used by the Mycenaeans? Had the Minoans conquered the Mycenaeans and imposed their language on them? Or had the Mycenaeans conquered the Minoans, and was Knossos ruled by the Mycenaeans? Yet the artefacts discovered in the two sites (Knossos and Pylos) indicated two distinct cultures. Over the next 50 years, Linear B tablets have been found in other locations, both in Mainland Greece (Mycenae, Tiryns and Thebes) and in Crete (Chania).

The next stage in the decipherment of the script was carried out by an American archaeologist by the name of Alice Kober. Over the period of 1943 to 1950 she studied the Linear B texts in detail and came up with some remarkable results. She assumed that Evans was right that the language used inflection. This means that the endings of words change in a predictable way. This is something which is not common in English, but a simple example would be the following:

Note the final syllables: -da -das -dian, -na -nas -nian.

Using a similar reasoning, Kober examined many words and found ones in which the first few syllables were the same but the endings were different. By tabulating many such endings, she was able to build up a table of ten symbols:

Here, each symbol represents a consonant followed by a vowel. Kober deduced that all the symbols in the first column share the same vowel, although she didn’t know what vowel it was. Similarly, all the symbols in the second column share the same vowel, a different one from that in the first column. Each row represents a separate consonant. Kober’s work was unique, in that she deduced relationships between the vowels and consonants without any idea which vowels or consonants were being represented. Sadly, Alice Kober died in 1950 at the age of 43, before she had a chance to see the use to which her work was put. ( e vrane ? )

Michael Ventris

In 1936, a group of schoolboys were visiting the Royal Academy of Arts. The 86-year-old Evans, who happened to be there to give a lecture, showed them around the section on Greek and Minoan Art. Michael Ventris was one of the boys, only 14 at the time. He asked Evans one question: ‘Did you say the tablets haven’t been deciphered, sir?’ From that time onwards, Ventris was fascinated with the idea of deciphering the Linear scripts.

Ventris specialised in the classics in school, but never went on to college. He started work as an architect, so it was in the spirit of a hobby that he tackled the problem of Linear B in 1950, when he was 28. He decided to keep an open mind as to what language the inscriptions were written in.

The Cypriot Clue

Cypriot was a writing system which was used in the 1st Millennium BC in Cyprus. This was about a thousand years after the use of Linear B. Cyprus is a Greek-speaking island, and the Greek that is spoken there is very closely related to the Greek spoken to this day near Mycenae, so it is reasonable to assume there might be a connection.

Cypriot is also a syllabic writing system. Each of the 56 symbols represents one syllable: either a pure vowel or a consonant followed by a vowel. The Cypriot symbols are not the same as the Linear B ones, but there are a few (about seven) which look similar. It is conceivable that it arose from Linear B but that the symbols changed shape over the years. Cypriot uses the ’se’ symbol quite a bit to denote a final ’s’ sound in a word, a feature which is very common in Greek.

The Decipherment

Ventris started out by extending the work done by Kober. He built up a much bigger table of consonants and vowels by analysing different words that started with the same symbols. He used clues such as that certain tablets were clearly lists of women’s names, with a picture of a woman after each name, while others were lists of men’s names, with a picture of a man after each name. The men’s names tended to end in certain symbols while the women’s ended in different symbols. This allowed certain symbols to be grouped together.

Other symbols appeared very often at the start of words, but also in the middle of words, suggesting that they were pure vowels with no consonant attached. Eventually, Ventris had a grid with all the most common Linear B symbols on it, showing which ones shared the same vowel, and which ones shared the same consonant. But he still didn’t know what the actual vowels and consonants represented were, although he had suspicions about some of them.

Ventris did not want to rely too heavily on correspondence between Linear B and Cypriot, since there were major differences. About 90% of the Cypriot symbols didn’t match the Linear B ones at all, and Linear B did not have any single character that was regularly used at the ends of words to correspond with the Cypriot ’se’.

This did not seem all that surprising since the final ’s’ sound is a feature of the Greek language and there was no reason to believe that Minoan or Mycenaean had the same feature. However, he needed some starting point for assigning actual vowels and consonants to the grid. In the end, he used just two similarities with the Cypriot system in his decipherment.

In this manner, Ventris progressed to decipher all the letters in his grid. As he worked, he noticed that the endings of the words corresponded very closely with what he knew of Ancient Greek. Gradually, he realised that the language he was studying actually was Ancient Greek. This was despite all the experts’ opinions that it couldn’t possibly be. Ventris decided that the time had come to let the world in on his discovery.

Ventris had been very open about his progress on the decipherment. Throughout the period, he had written down all his findings as ‘Work Notes’ and circulated them to anyone he thought would be interested. His final results were announced in Work Note 20, in June 1952, in which he tentatively outlined his theory that the language of the Linear B tablets, even in Knossos, was Greek. Just after he issued this, he was asked to talk about the Minoan Script in general on BBC Radio 4. He gave his talk, and briefly outlined his new theory.

John Chadwick

John Chadwick (1920 - 1998) was a comparative linguist. He studied Greek dialects, analysing the differences and attempting to reconstruct the mother language. In effect, he studied a type of Greek which had never been seen written down. In fact, he was reconstructing the language of Mycenae, the very language that was on the Linear B tablets. In June 1952, Chadwick heard Ventris’s tentative announcement on the radio that he had deciphered the writing system and that it was Greek. He was impressed with what he heard, so in July, he contacted Ventris and offered to assist him. Ventris accepted.

From that time on, Ventris and Chadwick worked together, using Ventris’s knowledge of the symbols and Chadwick’s knowledge of the language to produce a full decipherment. The Mycenaean Greek was shown to be different from the Ancient Greek of Homer, but in line with the predictions of the comparative linguists. They published their work together in 1953 in an article entitled ‘Evidence of Greek Dialects in the Mycenaean Archives’.

Their findings tell us two interesting things.

Firstly, the Mycenaeans spoke Greek. This is something that had not been known for certain before. It had always been known that the Greek-speaking Dorians did not arrive in Greece until about 1000 BC, and it was also known that the Mycenaeans were not Dorian. Secondly, Knossos was controlled by Greek-speaking people from about 1450 BC onwards. The most reasonable explanation is that the Mycenaeans invaded Crete and conquered it.

Initially, Ventris and Chadwick received some praise and some disbelief from other scholars in the field, although the harshest judgements appear to have come from people who didn’t read the document. Soon, however, a tablet came to light which was clearer than any previous ones: among the Linear B text were pictures of pots and jars which clearly had three legs, four handles, two handles, no handles and so on.

The newly deciphered text said just that: ‘pot with three legs’, ‘jar with no handles’, ‘jar with four handles’, etc. This was such a good confirmation of Ventris and Chadwick’s work that virtually all opposition to the theory was dropped and the decipherment was accepted as being the genuine article.

Revealed Linear B

Each symbol in the main grid is either a pure vowel (the first row) or a consonant followed by a vowel, with the consonant shown on the left and the vowel shown at the top.

Linear B is like a shorthand system, with much abbreviation. It does not distinguish between many consonants. Aspirated consonants such as ph, th, etc are written using the same symbols as their unaspirated versions (p, t, etc)4. Certain other sounds which are quite clearly different are written using the same symbols:

Linear B handles syllables with two consonants followed by a vowel by breaking them up into two syllables and repeating the vowel: kno becomes ko-no; mni becomes mi-ni. These can lead to much ambiguity. However, all examples of Linear B so far have been palace stock records. In this limited area, the users of the script would have had no problem interpreting the script.

Aftermath

Ventris and Chadwick went on to publish a detailed account of the decipherment in 1956 under the title ‘Documents in Mycenaean Greek’. Tragically, just after this was published, Michael Ventris was killed in a car accident, at the age of 34. ( e vrane ? )

Other researchers went on to translate most of the tablets from Pylos and Knossos, and additional tablets which were discovered later in such locations as Thebes and Chania. All of them are store records, giving us a detailed look at what went into the day-to-day running of a Mycenaean palace, but no histories, no poetry and nothing that could be counted as literature have yet been discovered. It is possible that, due to the shorthand nature of Linear B, it would not have been practical to write down such works.

One interesting discovery is that writing was not just the job of a few scribes. All the tablets in Pylos were made within a single year. Presumably the tablets would have been wiped clean at the end of the year for a new accounting year, but due to a fire, the tablets were baked hard, making them permanent. Analysis of the handwriting on the tablets shows that they were written by more than 50 different people.

The palace in Pylos is big, but not big enough to support 50 scribes doing nothing but writing records. This suggests that everybody with a responsible job was expected to keep their own records. So writing was a skill of every educated person. But no writing has ever been uncovered outside of the palaces. Probably it was never a skill of the peasants, and also, most agricultural land has been ploughed over thousands of times since the age of the Mycenaeans.

No progress has been made in the decipherment of Linear A, which has only ever been found in Crete. It is assumed that Linear A represents the original Minoan language. Many of the symbols are the same as those in Linear B, but using the Linear B sounds to read Linear A gives us a meaningless string of syllables. These may be in fact the Minoan language, but we have no way of knowing since we aren’t familiar with that language. Alternatively, there may be a different set of sounds for these symbols. Perhaps some future scholar, with as much determination and persistence as Michael Ventris, can solve the mystery of Linear A.

The short example of Linear B given above can now be decoded: a-re-ka-sa-da-ra. This has been found as the name of a woman on one of the Linear B tablets. There are a few different ways this could be read, but taking ka-sa as ksa and taking da-ra as dra, we get a-re-ksa-dra which is quite clearly the name Alexandra. It is strange to think that there were people with this name living more than 3,000 years ago!

Emmett L. Bennett Jr,[40] a classicist who played a vital role in deciphering Linear B, the Bronze Age Aegean script that defied solution for more than 50 years after it was unearthed on clay tablets in 1900. Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory/University of Texas at Austin. Professor Bennett’s work opened a window to deciphering tablets written in Linear B, a Bronze Age Aegean script.

Professor Bennett was considered the father of Mycenaean epigraphy — that is, the intricate art of reading inscriptions from the Mycenaean period, as the slice of the Greek Bronze Age from about 1600 to 1200 B.C. is known. His work, which entailed analysis so minute that he could eventually distinguish the handwritings of many different Bronze Age scribes, helped open a window onto the Mycenaean world.

This was the world of which Homer would sing in his “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” a world that until Linear B was deciphered had languished in the murk of prehistory. Deciphering an ancient script is like cracking a secret code from the past, and the unraveling of Linear B is widely considered one of the most challenging archaeological decipherments of all time, if not the most challenging.

“Anyone who’s looked at a piece of indecipherable handwriting realizes how difficult it is as opposed to looking at a piece of text with the same message in printed form,” With an unknown language in an unknown script, the difficulty is multiplied a thousandfold.

Linear B recorded the administrative workings of Mycenaean palatial centers on Crete and the Greek mainland 3,000 years ago: accounts of crops harvested, flocks tended, goods manufactured (including furniture, chariots and perfume), preparations for religious feasts and preparations for war. It was deciphered at last in 1952, not by a scholar but by an obsessed amateur, a young English architect named Michael Ventris.

In his seminal monograph “The Pylos Tablets” (1951), Professor Bennett published the first definitive list of the signs of Linear B. Compiling such a list is the essential first step in deciphering any unknown script, and it is no mean feat.

Analysts of Linear B spent years in similar straits. Working with Alice Kober, a classicist at Brooklyn College who before her death in 1950 was one of the world’s foremost experts on the script, Professor Bennett spent much of the 1940s hammering out a list of about 80 characters.

Each character stood for a syllable of the still unknown language. Thanks to the combined efforts of Professor Bennett, Professor Kober and Mr. Ventris, Linear B is now the earliest readable writing in Europe, and the Mycenaean Age is part of the canon of history.

Those skills would prove invaluable for his analysis of Linear B. The tablets were first unearthed in the spring of 1900 at Knossos, Crete, by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who dated them to about 1450 B.C. (He also uncovered an older Cretan script, which he named Linear A; it remains undeciphered.)

The language it recorded was equally unknown: many ethnic groups had peopled the Bronze Age Aegean, and there was no way to tell which had produced the tablets. Mr. Evans tried for decades to crack Linear B but was unable to do so before his death in 1941.

About the only thing of which he, and most later investigators, felt confident was that the script did not record Greek: Greek speakers were not thought to have existed that long ago. Even if they had, they would seemingly have had no way to write their language down: the Greek alphabet was not adopted until the eighth centuri  (The Homeric epics were composed and transmitted orally starting in the ninth or eighth century B.C.) But as Mr. Ventris discovered, tury B.C. Linear B did write Greek — a very early dialect spoken 500 years before Homer and a millennium before the Classical Age.

Professor Bennett’s investigations centered on a cache of Linear B tablets from Pylos, on the Greek mainland; they had been unearthed by his mentor, Professor Blegen, in 1939. After the war, Professor Blegen entrusted his disciple to transcribe, analyze and publish their contents.

The result was “The Pylos Tablets.” Though the book did not try to decipher Linear B, its careful transcriptions, comprehensive list of signs and analysis of characteristic patterns in the script gave Mr. Ventris essential grist. “We know how much Ventris admired Bennett, because he immediately adopted Bennett’s sign list of Linear B for his own work before the decipherment,” said Mr. Robinson,

Deciphered Linear B

For a long time the Linear B script did not disclose its secret to those who worked on its solution. Nor was the decipherment facilitated by the manner in which Sir Arthur Evans published the texts of the Linear B tablets—not all at once, but seriatim. When Blegen discovered the Linear B tablets on the Greek mainland in the ruins of the ancient palace in Pylos, they were ascribed to the Heroic Age of Troy, the final stage of the Mycenaean Age that ended abruptly.

Yet even after the Linear B tablets were found on the mainland of Greece their language was not thought to be Greek. The reason for that was, first of all, in the accepted chronological scale: the Ionian age, according to conventional chronology, was separated from the Mycenaean Age by five hundred years. Greek writing appears for the first time in the eighth century. Efforts to read the tablets made by classical philologists were unsuccessful, and whatever clue was tried out, the result was negative.

One of the most important and far-reaching theses of the reconstructin of ancient history is in the conclusion that the so-called Dark Ages of the Greek and Anatolian histories are but artifacts of the historians, and never took place. The Mycenaean Age ended in the eighth century and was followed by the Ionic times, with no centuries intervening, the break in culture being but the consequence of natural upheavals of the eighth century and of the subsequent migrations of peoples. Consequently the Ionic culture must show great affinity with the Mycenaean heritage; and therefore I have claimed that the Linear B script would prove to be Greek; but this was not a view that had many supporters.

In 1950 the eminent authority on Homeric Greece, Helen L. Lorimer, in her treatise Homer and the Monuments wrote of this script and of the efforts to read it: “The result is wholly unfavorable to any hope entertained that the language of the inscriptions might be Greek.”Nevertheless, on the occasion of addressing the Forum of the Graduate College of Princeton University on October 4, 1953, I formulated my expectations:

I expect new evidence from the Minoan Scripts and the so-called Hittite pictographs. Texts in the Minoan (Linear B) script were found years ago on Crete and in Mycenae and in several other places on the Greek mainland. I believe that when the Minoan writings unearthed in Mycenae are deciphered they will be found to be Greek. I also claim that these texts are of a later date than generally believed. “No ‘Dark Age’ of six centuries’ duration intervened in Greece between the Mycenaean Age and the Ionian Age of the seventh century.”

The address was printed as a supplement to Earth in Upheaval, but the last passage in the address was quoted from my Theses for the Reconstruction of Ancient History, published eight years earlier, in 1945.1

When speaking to the Princeton Forum in October 1953 I did not know that a young English architect was by then on the verge of publishing the solution to the riddle of the Linear B script. Only six months passed since my addressing the Graduate Forum, and the April 9, 1954 front page news of The New York Times made known the exciting performance of decoding Linear B by Michael Ventris.

The ancient script “that for the last half century and longer has baffled archaeologists and linguists has been decoded finally—by an amateur.” Ventris, an architect and “leisure-time scholar of pre-classic scripts,” served as a cryptographer during World War II. The script that had been tried without avail in a variety of languages Hittite, Sumerian and Basque among others was found by Ventris to be Greek. 2

Ventris as a boy attended a lecture by Sir Arthur Evans on the Minoan tablets with unread scripts and, like Schliemann who since boyhood was determined to find Troy and the tomb of Agamemnon, was intrigued to decipher the script of which he heard Evans speak. Thus the greatest discoveries in the world of classical studies were made by non-specialists, a merchant and an architect.

But Ventris was not immediately on the right path. In 1949 he had sent out a questionnaire on Linear B to leading authorities on Aegean questions; he privately distributed the replies in 1950 as The Languages of the Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations ( known as the “Mid-Century Report” ). None of his queried correspondents came upon the right trail.

In 1962 Leonard R. Palmer testified as to the stand the Hellenic scholars and Ventris himself had taken prior to the achievement; in his book Mycenaeans and Minoans, Palmer wrote: “Evans ventured no guess at the possible affinities of the Minoan language. That it was Greek never entered his head.” Also Blegen, who was the first to find the tablets on Greek soil, “was ‘almost certain’ that the language of his tablets was ‘Minoan’ . . . Nor did the possibility that the Linear B tablets concealed the Greek language occur to Michael Ventris.” He “guessed that the language was related to Etruscan .

. . This wrong diagnosis was maintained by Ventris right up to the final stages of his decipherment.” “It figures in the so-called ‘Mid-Century Report,’ which records what could be deduced by the most eminent living authorities from the archaeological and other evidence available at the time preceding the decipherment of the script. The remarkable fact stands out that not one of the scholars concerned suggested that the language could be Greek.”

But a few years more and Ventris found the true solution. Even then loud voices of skepticism and opposition made themselves heard. 3  But the method being perfected disclosed more and more Greek words and names which could not result from a mistaken decipherment. The entire field of early Greek civilization experienced the greatest shock since the discovery of Troy. To the even greater surprise of the scholarly world the names of the deities of the Greek pantheon, supposedly “created” by Homer and Hesiod, were found on the deciphered Linear B tablets.

The reading of these tablets in the Greek language raised the question: How could a literate people in the fourteenth century become illiterate for almost five centuries, to regain literacy in the eighth century? Thus the problem already answered in Ages in Chaos was brought into relief, and a heretical idea crept into the minds of a few scholars: is there some mistake in the accepted timetable?

In the last century a Dark Age of five centuries’ duration between the Mycenaean and the Ionian ages was forced upon the scholars of the Greek past by students of Egyptology, and in three quarters of a century this notion, first bitterly opposed, became as bitterly defended by the new generation of classical scholars, only to be confronted with the riddle of the Mycenaean tablets written in Greek more than five hundred years before the oldest known Greek inscription in alphabetic characters adapted from the Hebrew-Phoenician script.

Ventris died young, in an auto accident, soon after his triumph. One of the most tantalizing riddles of classical archaeology was solved, but not without creating some puzzling situations. The Homeric Question, instead of being solved, grew now to astonishing, one would like to say, Homeric, proportions.

References

In this publication, distributed only to a limited number of large libraries in Europe and America, I stated, without any elaboration, the findings to which I had come in the work of reconstruction of ancient history, thus outlining the projected Ages in Chaos and its sequel volumes.

Cf. J. Chadwick, The Decipherment of Linear B (Cambridge, 1958).

E.g., that of Prof. Beattie in Journal of Hellenic Studies 76 (1956), pp. 1ff.

Alice Kober (December 23, 1906 in New York City – May 16, 1950) was an American classical scholar and archaeologist best known for laying the groundwork for the decipherment of Linear B. Starting in the early 1940s, Kober conducted her studies of Linear B while an assistant to Sir John Myres. At the time, it was agreed that the writing direction of Linear B was from left to right. Most of the known clay tablets were inventory data which contributed to the early decipherment of the counting system.

The number of distinct characters that had been identified – 90 – indicated a syllabary writing system. Arthur Evans also suggested that the language used inflection. While some scholars suspected it might be related to Greek or a Cypriot language, most assumed Linear B was an unknown Cretan language. She filled over 186,000 note cards with information about occurrences of the 90 Linear B characters. Kober found patterns in the writing: she identified word stems and endings which she presumed indicated the grammatical case. She also labelled some characters consonants and others vowels.

Cambridge University  [41]

. . at present the earliest document known to be in Greek are texts in Linear Script B. It is impossible to recognize as Greeks those people who spoke an indo-European language that had been sufficiently separated from its parent stem to be in modern linguistic terms as Greek.

The consensus is that the language is not Greek, although a few would allow that it may contain Greek elements. Some, led by C. Gordon, have thought it to be a western Semitic dialect. Others identify it with Luwian; but it is not by any means certain that all the text are in a single language. Obviously caution and patience are called for.

J. Chadwick in the pertinent chapter, would imply that the language had been formed still earlier, in another region – a supposition without firm evidence and hard to reconcile with either linguistic or archaeological data. The hypothesis that Greek was developed by people of I-E speech after they had reached Greece is more convincing, though admittedly not subject to final proof.

In 1928, Blegen and Haley found pre-Greek place-name belong to the Early Bronze Age, are no Greek.  A new people arrived in Greece, probably in the twentieth century b,c, coming either from the north. They spoke an Indo-European language, which either was Greek or was about to become Greek, and one of their making Minyan pottery, the knowledge of which probably came with them but was developed chiefly in their new home.

      They were related in culture and probably in race to the people of Troy, who arrived at the Hellespont about the same time or a little later. Before long they were spread through all the Peloponnese and established in the north-west and north, but the interior parts of Thessaly and Macedonia were never deeply affected by them.

M. Ventris & Linear Script B [42]

Ventris’s work was carried on with rigid exclusion of influence by any known language. Actually Ventris, following Evans and nearly al others, did not believe, despite historical consideration which might have made themselves felt, that the language was Greek.

            Cnossus 1480-1400 was captured by Greek or foreign control. Why was Linear B developed I Minoan, because Linear A was inadequate for Greek ? Linear B evidently cannot be derived from Linear A, but instead booth must come from a common source, an earlier script totally lost. Linear B was carried back to Greece.

            The seemingly necessary hypothesis that Linear B, though exported to Greece and written for nearly two centuries, changed very little, can be confirmed to some extent by evidence of the vase-inscriptions from Thebes, dated 1320 bc.

          Will  all this accords the fact that Linear B itself was a most imperfect syllabary for Greek. .  Verse such as the Homeric, but even much simpler verse, would be impossible in Linear B. Presumably Linear B was created by fiat. . Of some of these tablets, the language is an untranslated.

Cambridge Ancient History [43]

      The tablets with linear B dated 1400-1375 bc, Cnossus, Pylus. Words in the syllabic remain enigmatic. . The words spelt with signs represent of course not only items of vocabulary but also proper names. It has been suggested that some tablets which do not apparently yield Greek words are in some other language.

         But a much higher proportion thanin classic Grece does not yield clear interpretations of this sort. . .some may be hypocoristics of Greek orgin, but, especially at Cnossus, we must clearly reckon with a large element in the population who retained a non – Greek tradition at least in their names.

The place names , as in classical times, are largely without Greek etymologies but can hardly be classed as foreign on that account.

           . . many interpretations can be firmly dismissed as contrary to the known facts. The presence in the cocabulary of a number of wordddds not to be identified any classical source  need occasionno surprise. Chronolpgically the nearest surce  is Homer, and it is generally accepted that Homeric text, dates to about five centuries after the fall of Pylus.

            The presence of a non-Greek element is perhaps to be inferred from the personal names which are not of Greek type , . . may  perhaps have been given by Greek masters to their barbarian serfs. Minoan civilization was modified from under Greel rule. It would seem that non-Greek names are more frequent at Cnossus than on the mainland. . . . . .

PS.       Jepet me shkurtime. Kush eshte i interesuar mund t’ja japin krejt ne shqip, por do ti humbase vlera e vertetesise, e besimit dhe nuk do te kete me kureshtje per tu thelluar me teje, per te nxjere ne menyre me shkencore qe : Gjuha jone ( ilire ) rreth 1500 vjet para eres se re eshte shkrojtur me Shkrimin Linear B.

Konstantin L. Gjoka ( Qeparoi ) i diplomuar nga Universiteti i Tiranës me titull Inxhinier, me gradë shkencore “Kandidat i Shkencave” po nga ky universitet, me gradën  “Doktor i Shkencave” nga universiteti Politeknik Mecovio i Athinës, me Certificate Postdoctoral nga Georgetown University Washington. Antar - Melous Texniko Epimelitirio Eladas; Member New York Academy of Sciences. Nënshtetas Amerikan, banues New York, lindur dhe rritur në  familje himariote, me baba ilir e nënë helene.

Ka shkruar, për  llogari të New York Center for Studies & Resarch, me dhjetra punime, shumë prej të cilave janë botuar në librat e bërë së bashku me, studjuesen dhe poeten Eleonora Koka : “Dinjiteti Human,” “ Stuhi në  Qendër të Perandorisë,”  “Studime.”

drkostaqeparoi@gmail.com

[2] Introduction in The Odyssey, Penguin Books Inc USA 1991

[3] Aristidh Kola, “I Arvanites & Katagoji ton Elinon”:  “I glossa ton Theon”, dy libra në  orgjinal të shoqëruara edhe me indeks.

[4] The Cambridge Ancient History, G.Britain, 1978.

[5] Prof. Janë Ellen Harrison, ka shkruar tre libra për   fillimin e kulteve të para të njerëzimit, me tituj: Prolegomena (= Prologu, të thënat e para);  2. Themis (të thënat) dhe  3. Epilegomena (= Epilogu, të thënat më pas).

[6] Ocellus, Lucanus on the Nature of the Universe, Londer, MDCCCXXXI

[7] Hesiod, Theogony…The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1983

[8] Juliana, Ndikimi i Perëndive në  Perëndimin e Perendit, New York Center for Studies & Research, 2009

[9] Homeri, Iliada dhe Odisea…

[10] Homeri,  The Odyssey,   1-259

[11] po aty, 2-18

[12] po aty 19-177

[13] Homeri, Iliada, Pinguin Books, 1994, f 11, citohet tek Iliada

[14] po aty, citohet në  parathënien e Iliadës

[15] Homeri, Odyssey, Penguin Books, f. 352, ku citohet Dr. Petter V. Jones.

[16] Po aty, f. 370,  24-538

[17] Herodotus, Harper Publisgers, 1880   f.  22

[18] po aty f.22

[19] N.G.L. Hammond, A History of Greece to 322 bc. London 1986.

[20] Herodotus, libër i përmendur më lart, f. 64

[21] po aty f. 164

[22] po aty, f.167, 194

[23] po aty, f. 332

[24] po aty , f.340

[25] po art, f.74

[26] po aty, f. 74

[27] Herodoti, në  anglisht, f. 74-75 ose Clio - I

[28] po aty, f. 363, VI-24

[29] Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, London 1982 f. 42

[30] Xenophon’s Anabasis, The March up Country, Michgan 1959

[31] Polybius, The Rise of the Roman Empire, New York 1979.

[32] Plutarch, The Lives of the Noble Grecian and Romans, Encyclopedia Britannica, USA 1952.  Plutarch on Sparta, f. 1

[33] po aty, f.69

[34] R.J.A. Talbert, citohet tek Plutarch on Sparta, f. 107

[35] Plutarch, Pyrrus, f.405 Plutarch,

[36] Plutarch, Lycurgus,  f. 37

[37] po aty, f. 314

[38] Grupi i arkeologëve ishte nga Millsaps College i Jacksonit në  Missisipi USA drejtuar nga Prof. Michael Galaty.

[39] Istoria ton Elinon, Tomos I, Proistoriki Hroni, Ekdosi Domi,; ekdomi@internet.gr, Atene, Mikinaiki Grafi, Kathijitis Joanis Probonas, p. 546-582. Ne fund japim disa citime greqisht me germa latine te mara nga keto faqe.

[40] Margalit Fox

[41] John L Caskey, Profesor of classical Archaeology and Fellow of the Graduate School in the University of Cincinnati; The Cambridge Ancient History, volume II, Part 1, Chapter IV, Greece and the Aegean Islands in the Middle Bronze Age, Cambridge University praess, 1978,page 137-140.

[42] Sterling Dow Professor of Archaeology, Harvard University, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol IV, Part 1, The Linear Script and the tablets as Historical Documents, p. 599-607

[43] John Chadwick, Prof. University of Cambridge, The Cambridge University History,  P. 611-622